Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism Colonial Nigeria

1 emergence of southern nigerian nationalism

1.1 second world war
1.2 self governing regions (1957)
1.3 constitutional conferences in uk (1957–1958)

emergence of southern nigerian nationalism

british colonialism created nigeria, joining diverse peoples , regions in artificial political entity along niger river. nationalism became political factor in nigeria during interwar period derived both older political particularism , broad pan-africanism, rather sense among people of common nigerian nationality. goal of activists not self-determination, increased participation on regional level in governmental process.

inconsistencies in british policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, british tried both preserve indigenous cultures of each area , introduce modern technology, , western political , social concepts. in north, appeals islamic legitimacy upheld rule of emirs, nationalist sentiments related islamic ideals. modern nationalists in south, thinking shaped european ideas, opposed indirect rule, believed had strengthened considered anachronistic ruling class , shut out emerging westernised elite.

the southern nationalists inspired variety of sources, including such prominent american-based activists marcus garvey , w.e.b. du bois. nigerian students abroad, particularly @ british schools, joined other colonies in pan-african groups, such west african students union, founded in london in 1925. nationalists tended ignore nigeria focus of patriotism. common denominators tended based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly of yoruba , igbo. despite acceptance of european , north american influences, nationalists critical of colonialism failure appreciate antiquity, richness , complexity of indigenous cultures. wanted self-government, charging colonial rule prevented unshackling of progressive forces in nigeria , other states.

political opposition colonial rule assumed religious dimensions. independent christian churches had emerged @ end of nineteenth century. european interpretations of christian orthodoxy in cases refused allow incorporation of local customs , practices, although various mission denominations interpreted christianity in different ways. europeans tended overlook own differences , surprised , shocked nigerians wanted develop new denominations independent of european control. protestant sects had flourished in christianity since reformation; emergence of independent christian churches in nigeria (as of black denominations in united states) phase of history. pulpits of independent congregations became avenues free expression of critics of colonial rule.

colonial lagos circa 1910

in 1920s, nigerians began form variety of associations, such professional , business associations, such nigerian union of teachers; nigerian law association, brought lawyers, many of whom had been educated in britain; , nigerian produce traders association, led obafemi awolowo. while organised professional , fraternal reasons, these centres of educated people had chances develop leadership skills in organisations, form broad social networks.

ethnic , kinship organisations took form of tribal union emerged in 1920s. these organisations urban phenomena arose after numerous rural migrants moved cities. alienated anonymity of urban environment , drawn ties ethnic homelands—as need mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs later expanded federations covering whole regions. mid-1940s, major ethnic groups had formed such associations igbo federal union , egbe omo oduduwa (society of descendants of oduduwa), yoruba cultural movement, in awolowo played leading role. in cases, british assignment of people ethnic groups, , treatment based along ethnic lines, led identification ethnicity none had existed before.

a third type of organisation more pointedly political youth or student group, became vehicle of intellectuals , professionals. politically conscious segment of population , created vanguard of nationalist movement. newspapers, of published before world war i, provided coverage of nationalist views.

the 1922 constitution provided nigerians chance elect handful of representatives legislative council. principal figure in political activity ensued herbert macauley, referred father of nigerian nationalism. aroused political awareness through newspaper, lagos daily news. led nigerian national democratic party (nndp), dominated elections in lagos founding in 1922 until ascendancy of national youth movement (nym) in 1938. political platform called economic , educational development, africanization of civil service, , self-government lagos. significantly, macauley s nndp remained entirely lagos party, popular in area people had experience in elective politics.

the national youth movement (nym) used nationalist rhetoric agitate improvements in education. movement brought public notice long list of future leaders, including h.o. davies , nnamdi azikiwe. although azikiwe later came recognised leading spokesman national unity, when first returned university training in united states, outlook pan-african rather nationalist, , emphasised common african struggle against european colonialism. (this reflective of growing pan-africanism among american activists of time.) azikiwe had less interest in purely nigerian goals did davies, student of harold laski @ london school of economics, political orientation considered left-wing.

by 1938 nym agitating dominion status within british commonwealth of nations, nigeria have same status canada , australia. in elections year, nym ended domination of nndp in legislative council , worked establish national network of affiliates. 3 years later internal divisions arose dominated major ethnic loyalties. departure of azikiwe , other igbo members of nym left organisation in yoruba hands. during world war ii, awolowo reorganised predominantly yoruba political party, action group. yoruba-igbo rivalry became increasingly important in nigerian politics (see ethnic relations, ch. 2).

second world war

during world war ii, 3 battalions of nigeria regiment fought in ethiopian campaign. nigerian units contributed 2 divisions serving british forces in palestine, morocco, sicily, , burma, won many honours. wartime experiences provided new frame of reference many soldiers, interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways unusual in nigeria. war made british reappraise nigeria s political future. war years, brought polarisation between older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism , younger intellectuals, thought in more immediate terms.

the rapid growth of organised labour in 1940s brought new political forces play. during war, union membership increased sixfold 30,000. proliferation of labour organisations fragmented movement, , potential leaders lacked experience , skill draw workers together.

the action group largely creation of awolowo, general secretary of egbe omo oduduwa , leader of nigerian produce traders association. action group heir of generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among yoruba , had valuable connections commercial interests representative of comparative economic advancement of western region. awolowo had little difficulty in appealing broad segments of yoruba population, worked avoid action group being stigmatised tribal group. despite successful efforts enlist non-yoruba support, regionalist sentiment had stimulated party continued.

segments of yoruba community had own animosities , new rivalries arose. example, many people in ibadan opposed awolowo on personal grounds because of identification ijebu yoruba. despite these difficulties, action group rapidly built effective organisation. program reflected greater planning , more ideologically oriented of ncnc. although lacking azikiwe s compelling personality, awolowo formidable debater vigorous , tenacious political campaigner. used first time in nigeria modern, flamboyant, electioneering techniques. among leading lieutenants samuel akintola of ibadan , oni of ife.

the action group consistently supported minority-group demands autonomous states within federal structure, severance of midwest state western region. assumed comparable alterations made elsewhere, attitude won party minority voting support in other regions. backed yoruba irredentism in fulani-ruled emirate of ilorin in northern region, , separatist movements among non-igbo in eastern region.

the northern people s congress (npc) organised in late 1940s small group of western-educated northern nigerians. had obtained assent of emirs form political party counterbalance activities of southern-based parties. represented substantial element of reformism in north. powerful figure in party ahmadu bello, sardauna (war leader) of sokoto.

bello wanted protect northern social , political institutions southern influence. insisted on maintaining territorial integrity of northern region. prepared introduce educational , economic changes strengthen north. although own ambitions limited northern region, bello backed npc s successful efforts mobilise north s large voting strength win control of national government.

the npc platform emphasised integrity of north, traditions, religion, , social order. support broad nigerian concerns occupied clear second place. lack of interest in extending npc beyond northern region corresponded strictly regional orientation. activist membership drawn local government , emirate officials had access means of communication , repressive traditional authority keep opposition in line.

the small contingent of northerners had been educated abroad—a group included abubakar tafawa balewa , aminu kano—was allied british-backed efforts introduce gradual change emirates. emirs gave support limited modernisation largely fears of unsettling presence of southerners in north, , observing improvements in living conditions in south. northern leaders committed modernisation firmly connected traditional power structure. internal problems concealed, , open opposition domination of muslim aristocracy not tolerated. critics, including representatives of middle belt resented muslim domination, relegated small, peripheral parties or inconsequential separatist movements.

in 1950 aminu kano, had been instrumental in founding npc, broke away form northern elements progressive union (nepu), in protest against npc s limited objectives , regarded vain hope traditional rulers accept modernisation. nepu formed parliamentary alliance ncnc.

the npc continued represent interests of traditional order in pre-independence deliberations. after defection of kano, significant disagreement within npc related moderates. men such balewa believed overcoming political , economic backwardness npc protect foundations of traditional northern authority against influence of more advanced south.

in 3 regions, minority parties represented special interests of ethnic groups, affected majority. never able elect sizeable legislative delegations, served means of public expression minority concerns. received attention major parties before elections, @ time either dominant party region or opposition party in region sought alliance.

the political parties jockeyed positions of power in anticipation of independence of nigeria. 3 constitutions enacted 1946 1954. while each generated considerable political controversy, moved country toward greater internal autonomy, increasing role political parties. trend toward establishment of parliamentary system of government, regional assemblies , federal house of representatives.

in 1946 new constitution approved british parliament @ westminster , promulgated in nigeria. although reserved effective power in hands of governor-general , appointed executive council, so-called richards constitution (after governor-general sir arthur richards, responsible formulation) provided expanded legislative council empowered deliberate on matters affecting whole country. separate legislative bodies, houses of assembly, established in each of 3 regions consider local questions , advise lieutenant governors. introduction of federal principle, deliberative authority devolved on regions, signalled recognition of country s diversity. although realistic in assessment of situation in nigeria, richards constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism alternative political unification.

the pace of constitutional change accelerated after promulgation of richards constitution. suspended in 1950 against call greater autonomy, resulted in inter-parliamentary conference @ ibadan in 1950. conference drafted terms of new constitution. so-called macpherson constitution, after incumbent governor-general, went effect following year.

the important innovations in new charter reinforced dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing both regional autonomy , federal union. extending elective principle , providing central government council of ministers, macpherson constitution gave renewed impetus party activity , political participation @ national level. providing comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, not over-ridden newly established 185-seat federal house of representatives, macpherson constitution gave significant boost regionalism. subsequent revisions contained in lyttleton constitution, enacted in 1954, firmly established federal principle , paved way independence.

self governing regions (1957)

in 1957 western , eastern regions became formally self-governing under parliamentary system. similar status acquired northern region 2 years later. there numerous differences of detail among regional systems, adhered parliamentary forms , equally autonomous in relation federal government @ lagos. federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping , navigation, , communications, real political power centred in regions. significantly, regional governments controlled public expenditures derived revenues raised within each region.

ethnic cleavages intensified in 1950s. political activists in southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities , economic development. because of spread of mission schools , wealth derived export crops, southern parties committed policies benefit south of country. in north, emirs intended maintain firm control on economic , political change.

any activity in north might include participation federal government (and consequently southern civil servants) regarded challenge primacy of emirates. broadening political participation , expanding educational opportunities , other social services viewed threats status quo. extensive immigrant population of southerners, igbo, living in north; dominated clerical positions , active in many trades.

the cleavage between yoruba , igbo accentuated competition control of political machinery. receding british presence enabled local officials , politicians gain access patronage on government jobs, funds local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, , scholarships higher education. in economy many qualified applicants every post, great resentment generated favouritism authorities showed members of own ethnic group.

in immediate post-world war ii period, nigeria benefited favourable trade balance. although per capita income in country whole remained low international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel , burgeoning urbanisation expanded consumer demand imported goods.

in meantime, public sector spending increased more dramatically export earnings. supported not income huge agricultural surpluses new range of direct , indirect taxes imposed during 1950s. transfer of responsibility budgetary management central regional governments in 1954 accelerated pace of public spending on services , on development projects. total revenues of central , regional governments doubled in relation gross domestic product (gdp—see glossary) during decade.

the dramatic event having long-term effect on nigeria s economic development, discovery , exploitation of petroleum deposits. search oil, begun in 1908 , abandoned few years later, revived in 1937 shell , british petroleum. exploration intensified in 1946, first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, @ olobiri in niger delta. in 1958 exportation of nigerian oil initiated @ facilities constructed @ port harcourt. oil income still marginal, prospects continued economic expansion appeared bright , accentuated political rivalries on eve of independence.

the election of house of representatives after adoption of 1954 constitution gave npc total of seventy-nine seats, northern region. among other major parties, ncnc took fifty-six seats, winning majority in both eastern , western regions, while action group captured twenty-seven seats. npc called on form government, ncnc received 6 of ten ministerial posts. 3 of these posts assigned representatives each region, , 1 reserved delegate northern cameroons.

as further step toward independence, governor s executive council merged council of ministers in 1957 form all-nigerian federal executive council. npc federal parliamentary leader, balewa, appointed prime minister. balewa formed coalition government included action group ncnc prepare country final british withdrawal. government guided country next 3 years, operating complete autonomy in internal affairs.

constitutional conferences in uk (1957–1958)

the preparation of new federal constitution independent nigeria carried out @ conferences held @ lancaster house in london in 1957 , 1958, presided on rt. hon. alan lennox-boyd, mp, british secretary of state colonies. nigerian delegates selected represent each region , reflect various shades of opinion. delegation led balewa of npc , included party leaders awolowo of action group, azikiwe of ncnc, , bello of npc; premiers of western, eastern, , northern regions, respectively. independence achieved on 1 october 1960.

elections held new , enlarged house of representatives in december 1959; 174 of 312 seats allocated northern region on basis of larger population. npc, entering candidates in northern region, confined campaigning largely local issues opposed addition of new regimes. ncnc backed creation of midwest state , proposed federal control of education , health services.

the action group, staged lively campaign, favoured stronger government , establishment of 3 new states, while advocating creation of west africa federation unite nigeria ghana , sierra leone. npc captured 142 seats in new legislature. balewa called on head npc-ncnc coalition government, , awolowo became official leader of opposition.